The world’s oldest known (Carbon Dated 5th Century BCE) surviving, hand-knotted pile carpet is ‘The Pazyryk Rug’, was found in 1947/1949 by Russian archaeologist, Rudenko in the ancient burial tomb of a Scythian (Kurgan) nobleman in the Pazyryk Valley of the Altai Mountains in Siberia. The rug had been frozen in ice and it was very well preserved. Its main border depicting warrior horsemen was almost perfectly intact, bar one corner.

Woven using hand-carded and hand-spun wool, dyed using natural vegetable dyes, the beautifuly detailed rug must have been very brilliantly coloured when it was created some 2500 years ago. Today, due to its age, conditions in the tomb, and the subdued lighting in the museum designed to avoid light damage to this irreplacable artefact, the vibrance of the original colours can only be imagined.

The Pazyryk Rug is now housed and preserved in the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg in Russia. It is considered by many experts, including Ulrich Schurmann—the pre-eminent authority on ancient carpets—to be of specifically Armenian origin. Conflicting opinions exist however, suggesting it is of Scythian origin and probably woven by the nomadic tribes living in the steppes area where it was found.

Woven with the Turkish double knot technique, it shows great sophistication and evidence that there was already a long history of pile carpet weaving by this time. Despite being frozen in ice for 2500 years, the Pazyryk Rug is extraordinarily well-preserved, being almost perfectly intact.

This 6×6.5 feet rug has 36 symmetrical knots per cm², suggesting a very advanced weaving technique for the time. Its rich and intricate motifs have been the subject of much study and interpretation.

With its complex design and excellent craftsmanship, the Pazyryk rug, offers a rich narrative of the cultural and artistic life of ancient Central Asia and a fascinating glimpse into early rug-making techniques and designs.

The central field of the rug has a red ground and 24 small, decorative squares depicting a diagonal cross shaped 4-stemmed stylized lotus flower buds in gold, light and dark blue, again on a red ground. Each square is separated and bordered by the same narrow white framed bands with repeating groups of blue, yellow and red small squares or dots.

This motif is thought to be of Assyrian origin and may symbolize life, health, and rebirth. A narrow band using the same colours borders the middle field.

The Pazyryk Rug is framed by four different borders, each with distinct motifs. The first broad decorative band surrounding the middle field contains a row of yellow squares, again with narrow with cut-off corners on a red ground.

These yellow squares contain mythical Gryphons within a dark-blue jagged frame, each with the body and tail of a lion, a backward-looking eagle’s head and beak, and wings standing upright.

The next outer broad band shows 6 red grazing stags with dark blue dorsal stripe along their backs, yellow antlers and body spots against a blue / green background on each of the 4 sides of the band.

The following outer band is narrower, and shows the same design as the cross-shaped squares in the middle field, this time on a yellow ground colour with sky-blue flowers and red or dark blue sepals and petal veins in dark blue.

The next band is the broadest and the most interesting. Set on a red ground it shows 28 light grey superbly decorated horses and horsemen following each other on a red ground—7 on each row.

The depiction of horsemen is a prominent feature in the Pazyryk rug, reflecting the importance of horse-riding and warfare in Scythian culture. The men are depicted in great detail, complete with clothing, weaponry, and distinct hairstyles, providing insight into Scythian attire and aesthetics.

The horsemen are abstract in style, either mounted or marching beside their horse holding the reins, wearing gold / orange hood-shaped helmets with chin straps, knee-length white, red and blue braid-trimmed coats, close-fitting long trousers and ankle-length boots.

The horses are all very upright muscular looking animals, with yellow mains, plaited with ribbons and sporting feathers on their forelocks and plaited, beribboned tails.

The third border showcases fantastical creatures, including winged griffins and a man riding a mythic creature – possibly symbolizing the Scythians’ beliefs in the supernatural.

The innermost and outermost borders have a ‘burial’ motif, depicting horsemen and stags. These images could be related to Scythian religious beliefs and rituals, including those linked to burial and the afterlife.

For centuries, nomads roamed the great Persian empire, seeking new pastures for their animals and natural resources to make their harsh lives easier. From the time they discovered that the tough, long fibered wool from their sheep, goats, and even camels, could be spun into yarn, died with plant pigments and woven into cloth, they have been weaving rugs.

Nomadic tribes used flat-weave techniques to make their tents to protect themselves from the elements. In addition, they started to use kilims (flat-weave rugs) to cover earthen floors.

Weaving across the ages can be categorised based on the region of origin. Each with its own distinct flavour, techniques, designs and materials that contribute to the rich tapestry of both Persian and other Oriental rugs. The evolution of rug making among nomadic tribes, from the days of the first Persian Empire to the current day, is a fascinating journey from portable weaving in tents, to villages and finally to city workshops, mirroring the broader socio-cultural shifts from a nomadic lifestyle, to sedentary living in towns and cities.

Over time, the art of weaving improved and many useful items started to be made. Nomadic tribes used flat-weave techniques to make their tents to protect themselves from the elements, and cover earthen floors. As nomadic tribes started to spread across western Asia, they spread their weaving techniques to the people they met along what came to be known as The Silk Road, or Silk Route.

Weaving was part of daily life for nomadic tribes-people, with patterns and techniques passed down through generations, as both artistic expression and practical necessity. Because nomadic tribes were often on the move, their rugs were small—often no wider than a doorway—due to being woven on small, easily transportable, horizontal looms.

For the nomads, rugs were vital for warmth and comfort as floor coverings, tent hangings and bed coverlets. Despite transitioning from a nomadic to a more settled way of life, coupled with the impacts of national policies and the challenges of modernity, tribal rug making traditions have endured and adapted, continuing to tell the story of their unique histories and cultural identities.

What all the tribes have in common is an adherence to their rich traditions, especially in the art and craft of rug-making, which has endured and adapted, continuing to tell the story of their unique histories and cultural identities. From the earliest nomadic looms to the sophisticated large upright city workshop looms that came later, Persian rugs remain a symbol of cultural identity and artistic heritage.

Persian rugs can be categorised into 2 main types: tribal and city workshop rugs. Historically, Persia was a rich tapestry of diverse tribal groups, each with its unique cultural identity, deeply reflected in their rug-making traditions. The distinctions between tribal and city rugs are evident in their distinct designs, raw materials, craftsmanship, nature of production, size, region of origin, and when they were woven.

No one knows precisely when and where the technique of weaving first started, but there is no doubt that weaving, in general, started in Central Asia. Rug making among nomadic tribes and its evolution even to the current day is a fascinating journey from portable weaving in tents, to villages and finally to city workshops, mirroring the broader socio-cultural shifts from a nomadic lifestyle, to sedentary living in towns and cities.

The earliest rugs were TRIBAL RUGS distinguished by the unique patterns and styles that echo the intricate and colourful traditions of these nomadic tribes. Each tribe had their own, distinct legacy that has evolved over centuries, influenced by changes in empires, rulers, socio-political and economic dynamics.

Tribal rugs, which include both nomadic and village varieties, are known for their robust and vivid patterns. Woven by notable groups such as the Turkoman, Qashqai, and Bakhtiari tribes, they, often reflect the lifestyle and traditions of the weavers, embodying a raw, authentic charm.

Tribal rugs are often smaller than city rugs, largely due to the use of smaller, portable looms that suit the nomadic lifestyle. These looms are easy to assemble and disassemble, making them ideal for a life on the move when seeking pastures new.

Improvements in loom design, craftsmanship and availability of raw materials lead to a gradual change from nomadic weaving in tents, to village and CITY WORKSHOP rug-making in major towns along the Silk Road trade routes, each with their own distinct characteristics, patterns and symbols.

City rugs from renowned centers like Tabriz, Kashan and Heriz are known for their finer, intricate craftsmanship, often featuring elaborate patterns and diverse colour palettes. They are woven on large, stationary, upright looms that allow for the creation of larger rugs and carpets.

While Persian rugs are the most revered in the world, given the rich variety of ORIENTAL RUGS from beyond Persia, we also look at the origins and styles of handwoven rugs from Afghanistan, Russia, China, Turkey, India and Mongolia.

The rise of city workshops marked a significant evolution in the art of carpet weaving, as distinct from tribal rug making traditions. As nomadic tribes began to settle in towns and villages, rug-making tools transitioned from portable horizontal looms, to much larger, sophisticated, static vertical looms found in city-workshops, allowing the creation of larger rugs.

The stationary nature of looms, situated in permanent workshops, symbolises the transition from a nomadic to the sedentary lifestyle in rug making. The size and complexity of these city-made rugs reflect the sophistication and artistic capabilities developed in these urban centers.

In contrast to tribal rugs that were deeply rooted in the nomadic cultures, city workshops began to create, not just larger, but more complex and intricate rug designs, executed with superior technical precision. This variability adds to the uniqueness and charm of Persian rugs, each piece telling its own story.

Generations of Iranians have meticulously handed down the rug-weaving art and skill from the heyday of the Persian Empire to their descendants. Today, several key cities in Iran, including Gorgan, Heris, Isfahan, Kashan, Kerman, Mashhad, Tabriz and Qom, are minor hubs of carpet manufacturing with styles and designs exclusive to each region.

Originally estimated at arouond £750 value, the 17th Century Kirman Vase Rug pictured above eventually sold for $9.6 million at a Christie’s auction. This rug is the first known to feature the popular herati design, decorated with colourful flowers, leaves, and branches on a contrasting blue background. Its unique history and exceptional craftsmanship attracted numerous bidders and ultimately fetched a record-breaking price.

Most of the 16th-century Safavid niche carpets that survive today are the results of royal gifts preserved unused in the Ottoman Royal Treasuries until the siege of Istanbul during the Turco-Russian wars three hundred years later.

During the Safavid dynasty in the 16th & 17th centuries, rulers and wealthy merchants brought together skilled artisan master weavers, designers and dyers to these city workshops—fostering design and technique innovation.

Urban workshops in cities like Isfahan, Tabriz, and Kashan, with more sophisticated looms began crafting the most exquisite rugs ever seen using fine materials, including silk, with elaborate designs featuring floral motifs, medallions, hunting and detailed pictorial scenes, mirroring the artistic and cultural influences of the time.

Considered the golden age of Persian art, with royal patronage playing a vital role in elevating rug making to an elegant art form. City workshops located in Isfahan, Tabriz, Kashan, Kerman, Sarouk, Bijar, Mashad, Nain, Qum and Kashgai became renowned for their elaborate designs, often featuring floral motifs, medallions, and detailed pictorial scenes.

Finer materials, such as silk and high-quality wool, coupled with new dyeing techniques, used by city rug workshops allowed for a wider range of colors and subtle shades, producing rugs of remarkable beauty and intricacy like the Safavid rug pictured right.

These workshops operated with a higher degree of organization and employed larger, more sophisticated looms, fostering a significant innovation in design, materials, colour, and technique, and resulting in some of the most exquisite rugs ever produced.

Pictured above: Previously owned by industrialist and senator William A. Clark, the most expensive rug ever sold is the Clark Sickle-Leaf Carpet, a 17th-century Persian masterpiece measuring 8’9″ x 6’5″. Initially estimated at around $10 million, it fetched a staggering $33.7 million at a Sotheby’s auction in 2013.

Safavid rugs were not only items of domestic use, but also became symbols of status and were sought after by the aristocracy and wealthy merchants. They were also significant commodities in international trade, with many being exported to Europe and other parts of the world, thereby influencing artistic tastes and decorative arts far beyond Persia’s borders.

By the 20th century, the Persian rug industry faced new changes with the advent of synthetic dyes and commercial production methods. These changes brought about a shift in the color palette and designs of the rugs. However, there was also a revival of traditional methods, as connoisseurs began to value the authenticity of natural dyes and hand-spun wool.

Throughout these changes, from the earliest nomadic looms to the sophisticated city workshops, Persian rugs have remained a symbol of cultural identity and artistic heritage. Whether a simple tribal design or an elaborate city-made carpet, each rug tells a story of its own, a woven narrative of the people and their evolving way of life.

The legacy of city workshop rug-making continues to this day, with many of the techniques and styles developed during this period still being used. Safavid rugs serve as a testament to Persia’s rich artistic history and its enduring influence on the world of art and design.

The rise of city workshops marked a significant evolution in the art of carpet weaving, as distinct from tribal rug making traditions. As nomadic tribes began to settle in towns and villages, rug-making tools transitioned from portable horizontal looms, to much larger, sophisticated, static vertical looms found in city-workshops, allowing the creation of larger rugs.

The stationary nature of looms, situated in permanent workshops, symbolises the transition from a nomadic to the sedentary lifestyle in rug making. The size and complexity of these city-made rugs reflect the sophistication and artistic capabilities developed in these urban centers.

In contrast to tribal rugs that were deeply rooted in the nomadic cultures, city workshops began to create, not just larger, but more complex and intricate rug designs, executed with superior technical precision. This variability adds to the uniqueness and charm of Persian rugs, each piece telling its own story.

When trade routes from Europe to the Middle East opened up in the 1500s, and Persia (now Iran) began trading with the British, French, Dutch and Portuguese traders, Persian Rugs became popular floor and wall coverings with the European elite classes.

And so began the west’s obsession with Persian and oriental rugs from the east and seen as works of art and status symbols by connoisseur art collectors. The most beautiful Persian carpets became highly sought after as an investment—much like fine wines, artefacts and art by the masters—and not just a floor covering.

Persian carpet-making reached the pinnacle of its fame during the Safavid Dynasty from 1588 to 1629. The Safavid era rug pictured below was part of a collection offered by Sotheby’s in the Arts of the Islamic World & India fine rug and carpet sale in London in 2021.

Most of the 16th-century Safavid niche carpets that survive today are the results of royal gifts preserved unused in the Ottoman Royal Treasuries until the siege of Istanbul during the Turco-Russian wars three hundred years later.

During the Safavid dynasty in the 16th & 17th centuries, rulers and wealthy merchants brought together skilled artisan master weavers, designers and dyers to these city workshops—fostering design and technique innovation.

Urban workshops in cities like Isfahan, Tabriz, and Kashan, with more sophisticated looms began crafting the most exquisite rugs ever seen using fine materials, including silk, with elaborate designs featuring floral motifs, medallions, hunting and detailed pictorial scenes, mirroring the artistic and cultural influences of the time. Other urban workshops were located in Kerman, Sarouk, Bijar, Mashad, Nain, Qum and Kashgai.

By the 20th century, the Persian rug industry saw the introduction of synthetic dyes and commercial production methods resulting in a shift in the colour palettes and rug design. This was mainly influenced by increasing commercial demand for Persian rugs, both within and beyond Persia.

Persian carpet weaving is believed to have begun over 2500 years ago in the Persian Empire during the reign of Cyrus the Great. Tellers of folk stories and historians believe that when his tomb was discovered it was strewn with many priceless rugs.

As nomadic tribes started to spread across western Asia, they spread their weaving techniques to the people they met. Over a period of time, the art of weaving improved and many useful items started to be made.

When trade routes from Europe to the Middle East opened up in the 1500s, and Persia (now Iran) began trading with the British, French, Dutch and Portuguese traders, Persian Rugs became popular floor and wall coverings with the European elite classes.

And so began the west’s obsession with Persian and oriental rugs from the east and seen as works of art and status symbols by connoisseur art collectors. The most beautiful Persian carpets became highly sought after as an investment—much like fine wines, artefacts and art by the masters—and not just a floor covering.

Generations of Iranians have meticulously handed down the rug-weaving art and skill from the heyday of the Persian Empire to their descendants. Today, several key cities in Iran, including Gorgan, Heris, Isfahan, Kashan, Kerman, Mashhad, Tabriz and Qom, are minor hubs of carpet manufacturing with styles and designs exclusive to each region.

Despite surviving the 1979 revolution and the1980s Iran-Iraq War, Iranian hand-woven carpet industry revenues are declining. Competition from neighbouring countries, US sanctions (Iranian product imports are currently banned in the US, including Persian rugs) and a post-Covid-19 recession, not to mention the political unrest currently gripping Iran, is the likely cause.

Competition from machine-made carpets and rugs that copy the style and patterns of the original Persian rugs also only serves to put the price of antique rugs up, and even vintage rugs up to 50 years old, as they are an increasingly rare and finite resource.

By the 20th century, the Persian rug industry faced new changes with the advent of synthetic dyes and commercial production methods. These changes brought about a shift in the color palette and designs of the rugs. However, there was also a revival of traditional methods, as connoisseurs began to value the authenticity of natural dyes and hand-spun wool.

Throughout these changes, from the earliest nomadic looms to the sophisticated city workshops, Persian rugs have remained a symbol of cultural identity and artistic heritage. Whether a simple tribal design or an elaborate city-made carpet, each rug tells a story of its own, a woven narrative of the people and their evolving way of life.

The legacy of city workshop rug-making continues to this day, with many of the techniques and styles developed during this period still being used. Safavid rugs serve as a testament to Persia’s rich artistic history and its enduring influence on the world of art and design.

Due to the exquisiteness of the materials used and the hard labour and time it takes to complete every hand-knotted Persian rug or carpet, genuine hand-made antique Persian rugs from the last century and earlier are expensive—ranging from $500 to $50,000.

Several factors determine the price of a Persian rug, including the knot count per square inch, which can be anywhere from 60 to 1,000 knots per inch for the finest examples, use of hand-spun versus machine-spun yarns, and the application of natural dyes, size and design.